psychology-health

The Sodium Amytal Test

 A patient is given an injection of sodium amytal into the carotid artery before having brain surgery. The injection allows neurosurgeons to test one side of the brain at a time for language functionality, while the other side is anesthetized. The process is then reversed and the other hemisphere is tested. The test may involve presenting the patient with flash cards to have them identify objects or numerical and alphabetical series. It is known that the left hemisphere is usually dominant for speech, so when the injection anesthetizes the left hemisphere, the patient may lose the ability to speak momentarily. The right hemisphere, makes more mistakes than the left hemisphere for this test (Pinel, 2007, p.445).

Dichotic Listening Test

 The dichotic listening test involves the simultaneous presentation of spoken digits into the ears of the patient. Generally speaking, the left hemisphere is dominant for language, so the memories are stronger of the digits spoken into the right ear. Sometimes, the memories of the numbers spoken to the left ear are stronger, even though the patient has already shown left hemisphere dominance in the sodium amytal test.

Functional Brain Imaging

 Brain activity can be examined with the use of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) equipment, or positron emission tomography (PET). The patient will engage in an activity such as speaking or reading, and the activity of the section of brain associated with that skill can be seen. If the patient is reading, the images most often indicate more activity in the left hemisphere of the brain (Pinel, 2007, p.445).

Speech Laterality and Handedness

Left hemisphere dominance for speech has also been tested using the speech laterality and handedness technique. It has been found that lesions or damage to the left hemisphere which causes aphasia, affects more right handed people than left handed people. In addition, it was discovered that “that sinestrals are more variable than dextrals with respect to language lateralization”(Pinel, 2007, p.446 ). Aphasia is caused by brain damage and reduces a person’s ability to speak or understand language.

Reference

Pinel, J. P. J. (2007). Basics of biopsychology. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Emotions can be represented in many ways, and theorists have differing ideas about the way we display them. Darwin argued that the emotional signals we demonstrate are indicative of the emotional state we are in at that particular moment (Pinel, 2007, p.425).

Darwin’s theory makes sense; in ancient times, man had only the tools he roughly fashioned for himself from stone and wood. In order to be the hunter and not the hunted, man had to develop clever and fierce methods of protecting himself, and to intimidate animals which were a threat to his survival.

Darwin also says that as all animals have evolved, they have all found it necessary to change the ways in which they defend themselves, without showing their submission. Anyone who has been chased by barnyard fowl knows that raising one’s arms and ruffling their shirt is sure to make the most ferocious rooster think twice!

In 1884, James and Bard developed their own theory of emotion, and although it sounded feasible, the process is now known to be exactly opposite. According to James and Lange, the cortex receives and relays messages from particular stimuli which cause the autonomic nervous system to react, which in turn, produces the emotion.  

In the early part of the 20^th century, Cannon proposed yet another theory, will was later enhanced by Bard. The Cannon-Bard theory suggests that the stimuli produce multiple, simultaneous results in the brain; one effect is to trigger the emotion, while the other cause us to express that emotion. The theory argues that “emotional experience and emotional expression as parallel processes that have no direct causal relation“(Pinel, 2007.p.4216). 

In 1937, Papez announced his theory that the limbic system was responsible for the way we feel and show our emotions. Papez said that the limbic system’s actions were impressed upon the hypothalamus as emotions, and that other structures of the limbic system on the cortex produce the experience of the emotion. Some of the parts of the limbic system include “the amygdala, mammillary body, hippocampus, fornix, cortex of the cingulate gyrus, septum, olfactory bulb, and hypothalamus “ (Pinel, 2007, p.428).

There are other theories about emotions; how and why we feel them, and the physiological effects we have as a result, however, Darwin’s theory provides the simplest explanation as to why these behaviors can change from one animal to the next.

Pinel, J. P. J. (2007). Basics of biopsychology. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Fostering good behavior is paramount as a parent, yet many still make the mistake of  paying attention  after something unsavory has happened. Rather than offer any kind of attention, good or bad, for bad behavior, praise should be given to the good aspects of behavior, no matter how small. This simple approach alone can bring forth a more positive attitude on a regular basis. 

Children always seem to find a way to ‘push our buttons’ at times and really try our patience.  It’s easy to feel irritated, sad, angry, annoyed, confused and hurt.  It’s at these times when our parenting skills are really tested, and that it’s imperative we maintain a kind but firm stance when it comes to doling out the discipline.  And let’s face it - none of us ever want to hurt our child with physical or verbal abuse.  We want to teach our child that such things are wrong, and punishing a misdeed or inappropriate action by yelling or hitting is hypocritical at best. 

Our goal when disciplining our children is to teach them to be responsible, cooperative, kind and respectful.  The best way to teach this is to always remain consistent, follow through with the same punishment for the same misdeed, and to discuss the discipline with your child openly and honestly afterwards.

Always keep in mind that the age, maturity level, and temperament of your child should always be considered when enforcing a set disciplinary action.  Disciplinary actions should be discussed and understood in advance so that children know what they have coming when they’ve misbehaved and can give pause and hopefully choose an appropriate route to avoid it.  And most importantly, remember that it’s not the child you dislike; it’s his or her chosen behavior, action or misdeed.

If you need to, give yourself a brief ‘time out’ before responding with appropriate discipline.  Sometimes we need a short cooling off period before dealing with our children’s misdeeds in order to avoid a misdeed of our own.  Yelling and hitting should never be an option. 

Keep an open mind as a parent, and be willing to learn with and from your child.  We all make mistakes and it’s important to realize that not every form of discipline works with every child. Children are just as unique as adults are, and forms of discipline should be tailored to fit the individual needs of both parent and child.  But with a little forethought, patience, firmness, love and understanding, the discipline can have a positive outcome for all involved.

The hormone known as estradiol is a female hormone, while testosterone is a male hormone. While it would seem obvious that the male hormone would be responsible for the brain to masculinize, it is the estradiol which is responsible for this occurance.

In the womb, the fetus is protected from the effects of testosterone and estradiol by the placenta. If the fetus is female, this would be especially important, otherwise, the female newborn would develop some masculine tendencies.

The hormones, estradiol and testosterone have the same cell structure, so one can convert to the other; this process is known as aromatization (Pinel, 2007, p.343).
The brain of a male fetus has the same number of neurons as a female brain; however, another process proceeds to kill of cells of one gender or the other, ultimately leaving the brain structure of the fetus as female or male. This process is called apoptotic cell death (Pinel, 2007, p.344).

Behavioral studies have been conducted, but largely on laboratory animals. Even so, it was found that the aromatization process where testosterone converts to estradiol is important for the development of masculine behavior. A male fetus’ lack of testosterone exposure can demasulinize and feminize it, while the reverse is also true.

The studies on behavior development are interesting, although the  majority of information derived from  studies does not teach us much about the “the development of gender-related behaviors that are not directly related to reproduction”(Pinel,2007,p.345).

Reference
Pinel, J. P. J. (2007). Basics of biopsychology. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

There are four stages of sleep; all accompanied by varying degrees of high and low voltage activity. The first stage is transitional, with “low voltage, high-frequency waves of active wakefulness” (Pinel, 2007, p.369). During this stage of sleep, the frequency and voltage is similar to that of a person who is awake. As we progress through the stages through to stage four, the voltage increases, as the frequency fades. When we are rested and begin the waking process, we go back through each stage to stage 1. It is in this emergent stage 1 EEG that we experience rapid eye movement (REM). REM is said to be the time during sleep when we dream, and physiological changes also occur during this time.

Some people think that outside factors can influence the subject of their dreams. For example, the fluffy fur of a puppy may become a part of a dream where the person is wearing a fur coat and is stimulated by the feel of the soft fur. In actual fact, their dog may be asleep on the end of the bed as they lay dreaming. People also wrongly assume that the dreams they have last for a minute amount of time, and when questioned about the length of time their dreams last, they often suffer from time distortion and say that is was no more than a few minutes. Dreams are found to occur in real time, so this assumption of most people is, therefore, incorrect (Pinel, 2006, p.371).

Many people also wrongly assume that they do not have dreams, although they dream as much as everyone else, but without the recall capabilities. If these people were awakened during the REM stage, it is said that they would indeed remember their dreams, but perhaps not as vividly or as often as the majority of people (Pinel, 2006, p.371).

Physiological effects during sleep include stimulated sex organs. It is common for a gentleman to have an erection while he is sleeping, whether his dream is of a sexual nature or not. Other involuntary functions such as blood pressure are also altered during sleep. During stage 4 sleep, somnambulism and sleeptalking can occur. People often think that this happens because of a dream they were having, although somnambulism happens in the deepest stage of sleep, not the REM stage which is much lighter.

Hobson’s (1989) activation-synthesis theory is that we have dreams because of neural activity, and that the brain is trying to decipher the information via the dream so it makes sense to us (Pinel, 2006, p.372 ). Freud believed that dreams were manifestations of suppressed sexual urges, and that we dealt with unconscious issues through dreams because they were too much to cope with in the conscious state. It is my belief that Freud’s theory is the most logical, because dreaming is the perfect venue for venting unwanted stress which may otherwise be suppressed until it becomes unmanageable. I do believe that this is a self-regulatory system of maintaining good psychological health. However, it is possibly not a reasonable comparison between Hobson and Freud, because one theory has more to do with psychological issues, while the other has physiological relevance. ReferencePinel, J. P. J. (2007). Basics of biopsychology. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Set-point theory does not account for weight gain, according to its basis that people get hungry when a biological need prompts them to eat. However settling-point theory states that a person may continue to gain weight incrementally, as intermittent periods of homeostasis are achieved.The plateau effect experienced by most people when they lose weight can also happen when people gain a few extra pounds (Pinel, 2007). This is bthe body’s way of slowing down the process in one direction or the other, until its tendons can stretch, a gait can be altered, or a tolerance to higher blood pressure is accepted. By allowing for such adjustments, the body can expect to continue without injury.Settling point theory suggests that body weight will progress as it is directed, unless a variable is introduced which will inhibit that progression. If one chose to gain 10 pounds, but suddenly took up jogging, weight loss would be imminent, and the settling-point theory would again be validated.Reference

Pinel, J. P. J. (2007). Basics of biopsychology. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Evolution and social experiences have trained us to eat larger portions, and to eat foods which are not necessary for our bodies to maintain their normal functions. Because we congregate for the purpose of eating in a group setting and not just when our internal organizer says we need to boost energy levels for survival, more and more people are unnecessarily achieving obesity status. Unlike many Americans, people from other countries are not known for their weight and health related weight issues. They may eat similar quantities though, for example; French people are said to eat a lot, however, most will also speak of the goodness of the food; how wonderful its texture was, and are able to describe the flavors in great detail. Having respect for food must be seen as the element missing from the minds of millions of Americans.Just as personalities change depending on certain variables, so does our desire for different foods. If we are in company, we may make better food choices even though we eat a larger portion. If we are alone, it is possible we would eat something fried without a vegetable or a piece of fruit, because it was quick and convenient.

I have found myself eating until I was so full I felt uncomfortable, but never when I am alone. Alone I am more likely to relax and enjoy a book while eating some fresh fruit, although one apple is generally enough to satisfy my hunger. Based on my experience, I believe it is highly likely that nutritional foods cause the feeling of satiety, rather than foods high in simple sugars and sodium. In fact, sodium is notorious for prompting a second binge which I have always remembered to be sweet, rather than a second round of salt. Salt also makes me drink more water too, so the feeling of fullness is likely to creep up unexpectedly after I have already eaten way too much food. I also believe that hunger and appetite are vastly different; hunger is self-explanatory, but appetite means we eat for the sake of eating something which looks pretty.

The positive-incentive theory also provides a logical the reason why many people whose minds are occupied when watching a sporting event, can eat large quantities of food without experiencing the overdue feelings of satiety. Social gatherings where conversations are in full swing would also provide a distraction. Overeating is more likely to be an egotistical need to be in the public eye, or the desire to belong with others, than an alert from our bodies because they need refueling with nutritional food. Perhaps this is another way evolution removes the weakest of a species, so the strongest may thrive.