psychology-health

First impressions are most important; however, not all first impressions are correctly interpreted. Consider a person who is unwell, facing legal problems, has lost their job, or who may be grieving, and it is logical to assume that the person you are judging is not their usual self.

To understand personality traits and make the most accurate assessment of character, one must become acquainted over a period of time. Getting to know a person better before forming an opinion will allow you to make a better decision about their character, and this is particularly important if you are in a position of authority. Imagine interviewing someone for a job, only to get the feeling they are not capable of performing as you would like, then, finding out later that personal problems, which cannot always be left at home, have hampered their interview enough to cost them a job.

Understanding the psychological aspects of personality can be beneficial for the interviewer; real traits exist of time and across various situations, therefore, a one time meeting for five minutes is not the most accurate means of gauging solid personality traits. Not that one should be too lenient when considering outside factors which may have killed an otherwise good interview; business must come first. However, it is worth a second thought if the applicant possesses all the skills required to perform the job, and has appropriate references as proof.

Consider monitoring the newly hired individual closely for a period, and offer assistance through a wellness program your company offers. Alternatively, suggest a friendly chat over coffee. Being accessible to your staff will allow you to discover the root of most problems, and as a result, productivity and general wellbeing will be greatly enhanced.

The hormone known as estradiol is a female hormone, while testosterone is a male hormone. While it would seem obvious that the male hormone would be responsible for the brain to masculinize, it is the estradiol which is responsible for this occurance.

In the womb, the fetus is protected from the effects of testosterone and estradiol by the placenta. If the fetus is female, this would be especially important, otherwise, the female newborn would develop some masculine tendencies. The hormones, estradiol and testosterone have the same cell structure, so one can convert to the other; this process is known as aromatization (Pinel, 2007, p.343).

The brain of a male fetus has the same number of neurons as a female brain; however, another process proceeds to kill of cells of one gender or the other, ultimately leaving the brain structure of the fetus as female or male. This process is called apoptotic cell death (Pinel, 2007, p.344). Behavioral studies have been conducted, but largely on laboratory animals. Even so, it was found that the aromatization process where testosterone converts to estradiol is important for the development of masculine behavior. A male fetus’ lack of testosterone exposure can demasulinize and feminize it, while the reverse is also true.

 The studies on behavior development were interesting, although the text does mention that the majority of information derived from the studies does not teach us much about the “the development of gender-related behaviors that are not directly related to reproduction”(Pinel,2007,p.345).

Reference

Pinel, J. P. J. (2007). Basics of biopsychology. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon 

At first glance, a utilitarian approach would appear to be the most logical decision making process for when considering sex; especially if religion was not a part of one’s childhood. However, the utilitarian way of thinking is not necessarily relevant to a single instance of deciding whether or not to engage in sexual activity, because it pertains to a way of thinking which is generalized.

 Similarly, rationalization is not the best avenue of thought for making decisions about entering into a sexual encounter. Consider the heat of the moment; two people are sharing a passionate kiss, nobody else is nearby, and the circumstances are perfect for a sexual interlude. Without complete disregard for common sense and safety, being rational would not be foremost in most peoples’ minds at that time; how many people stop to analyze anything at that moment?  Emotions and rationalization do not usually co-exist. 

Although “opponents of ethical relativism argue that allowing people free rein to determine what is right or wrong may bring about social chaos and decay” (Rathus, Nevid & Fichner-Rathus, 2005), situational ethics and ethical relativism are free range methods of thinking which allow for a decision to be made based on the circumstances at a given time. Either system would allow me to make choices which are based on my own values and opinion and for a particular situation, rather than having to choose from a limited set of options which may be governed by someone else’s’ moral code.  Those who argue against either of these systems are doing so based on subjective opinions which are not necessarily the same as mine. Despite having certain values or religious beliefs, it is not always possible for anyone to make such an important decision about a sexual situation prior to the specific event taking place. Even those with the strictest religious upbringing have been known to make decisions on the spur of the moment, which they would not agree with in the course of a simple conversation. Reference Rathus, S.A., Nevid, J.S., and Fichner-Rathus, L. (2005). Human sexuality in a world of diversity. (6th ed.) Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

The Sodium Amytal Test

 A patient is given an injection of sodium amytal into the carotid artery before having brain surgery. The injection allows neurosurgeons to test one side of the brain at a time for language functionality, while the other side is anesthetized. The process is then reversed and the other hemisphere is tested. The test may involve presenting the patient with flash cards to have them identify objects or numerical and alphabetical series. It is known that the left hemisphere is usually dominant for speech, so when the injection anesthetizes the left hemisphere, the patient may lose the ability to speak momentarily. The right hemisphere, makes more mistakes than the left hemisphere for this test (Pinel, 2007, p.445).

Dichotic Listening Test

 The dichotic listening test involves the simultaneous presentation of spoken digits into the ears of the patient. Generally speaking, the left hemisphere is dominant for language, so the memories are stronger of the digits spoken into the right ear. Sometimes, the memories of the numbers spoken to the left ear are stronger, even though the patient has already shown left hemisphere dominance in the sodium amytal test.

Functional Brain Imaging

 Brain activity can be examined with the use of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) equipment, or positron emission tomography (PET). The patient will engage in an activity such as speaking or reading, and the activity of the section of brain associated with that skill can be seen. If the patient is reading, the images most often indicate more activity in the left hemisphere of the brain (Pinel, 2007, p.445).

Speech Laterality and Handedness

Left hemisphere dominance for speech has also been tested using the speech laterality and handedness technique. It has been found that lesions or damage to the left hemisphere which causes aphasia, affects more right handed people than left handed people. In addition, it was discovered that “that sinestrals are more variable than dextrals with respect to language lateralization”(Pinel, 2007, p.446 ). Aphasia is caused by brain damage and reduces a person’s ability to speak or understand language.

Reference

Pinel, J. P. J. (2007). Basics of biopsychology. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Emotions can be represented in many ways, and theorists have differing ideas about the way we display them. Darwin argued that the emotional signals we demonstrate are indicative of the emotional state we are in at that particular moment (Pinel, 2007, p.425).

Darwin’s theory makes sense; in ancient times, man had only the tools he roughly fashioned for himself from stone and wood. In order to be the hunter and not the hunted, man had to develop clever and fierce methods of protecting himself, and to intimidate animals which were a threat to his survival.

Darwin also says that as all animals have evolved, they have all found it necessary to change the ways in which they defend themselves, without showing their submission. Anyone who has been chased by barnyard fowl knows that raising one’s arms and ruffling their shirt is sure to make the most ferocious rooster think twice!

In 1884, James and Bard developed their own theory of emotion, and although it sounded feasible, the process is now known to be exactly opposite. According to James and Lange, the cortex receives and relays messages from particular stimuli which cause the autonomic nervous system to react, which in turn, produces the emotion.  

In the early part of the 20^th century, Cannon proposed yet another theory, will was later enhanced by Bard. The Cannon-Bard theory suggests that the stimuli produce multiple, simultaneous results in the brain; one effect is to trigger the emotion, while the other cause us to express that emotion. The theory argues that “emotional experience and emotional expression as parallel processes that have no direct causal relation“(Pinel, 2007.p.4216). 

In 1937, Papez announced his theory that the limbic system was responsible for the way we feel and show our emotions. Papez said that the limbic system’s actions were impressed upon the hypothalamus as emotions, and that other structures of the limbic system on the cortex produce the experience of the emotion. Some of the parts of the limbic system include “the amygdala, mammillary body, hippocampus, fornix, cortex of the cingulate gyrus, septum, olfactory bulb, and hypothalamus “ (Pinel, 2007, p.428).

There are other theories about emotions; how and why we feel them, and the physiological effects we have as a result, however, Darwin’s theory provides the simplest explanation as to why these behaviors can change from one animal to the next.

Pinel, J. P. J. (2007). Basics of biopsychology. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Fostering good behavior is paramount as a parent, yet many still make the mistake of  paying attention  after something unsavory has happened. Rather than offer any kind of attention, good or bad, for bad behavior, praise should be given to the good aspects of behavior, no matter how small. This simple approach alone can bring forth a more positive attitude on a regular basis. 

Children always seem to find a way to ‘push our buttons’ at times and really try our patience.  It’s easy to feel irritated, sad, angry, annoyed, confused and hurt.  It’s at these times when our parenting skills are really tested, and that it’s imperative we maintain a kind but firm stance when it comes to doling out the discipline.  And let’s face it - none of us ever want to hurt our child with physical or verbal abuse.  We want to teach our child that such things are wrong, and punishing a misdeed or inappropriate action by yelling or hitting is hypocritical at best. 

Our goal when disciplining our children is to teach them to be responsible, cooperative, kind and respectful.  The best way to teach this is to always remain consistent, follow through with the same punishment for the same misdeed, and to discuss the discipline with your child openly and honestly afterwards.

Always keep in mind that the age, maturity level, and temperament of your child should always be considered when enforcing a set disciplinary action.  Disciplinary actions should be discussed and understood in advance so that children know what they have coming when they’ve misbehaved and can give pause and hopefully choose an appropriate route to avoid it.  And most importantly, remember that it’s not the child you dislike; it’s his or her chosen behavior, action or misdeed.

If you need to, give yourself a brief ‘time out’ before responding with appropriate discipline.  Sometimes we need a short cooling off period before dealing with our children’s misdeeds in order to avoid a misdeed of our own.  Yelling and hitting should never be an option. 

Keep an open mind as a parent, and be willing to learn with and from your child.  We all make mistakes and it’s important to realize that not every form of discipline works with every child. Children are just as unique as adults are, and forms of discipline should be tailored to fit the individual needs of both parent and child.  But with a little forethought, patience, firmness, love and understanding, the discipline can have a positive outcome for all involved.

The hormone known as estradiol is a female hormone, while testosterone is a male hormone. While it would seem obvious that the male hormone would be responsible for the brain to masculinize, it is the estradiol which is responsible for this occurance.

In the womb, the fetus is protected from the effects of testosterone and estradiol by the placenta. If the fetus is female, this would be especially important, otherwise, the female newborn would develop some masculine tendencies.

The hormones, estradiol and testosterone have the same cell structure, so one can convert to the other; this process is known as aromatization (Pinel, 2007, p.343).
The brain of a male fetus has the same number of neurons as a female brain; however, another process proceeds to kill of cells of one gender or the other, ultimately leaving the brain structure of the fetus as female or male. This process is called apoptotic cell death (Pinel, 2007, p.344).

Behavioral studies have been conducted, but largely on laboratory animals. Even so, it was found that the aromatization process where testosterone converts to estradiol is important for the development of masculine behavior. A male fetus’ lack of testosterone exposure can demasulinize and feminize it, while the reverse is also true.

The studies on behavior development are interesting, although the  majority of information derived from  studies does not teach us much about the “the development of gender-related behaviors that are not directly related to reproduction”(Pinel,2007,p.345).

Reference
Pinel, J. P. J. (2007). Basics of biopsychology. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

There are four stages of sleep; all accompanied by varying degrees of high and low voltage activity. The first stage is transitional, with “low voltage, high-frequency waves of active wakefulness” (Pinel, 2007, p.369). During this stage of sleep, the frequency and voltage is similar to that of a person who is awake. As we progress through the stages through to stage four, the voltage increases, as the frequency fades. When we are rested and begin the waking process, we go back through each stage to stage 1. It is in this emergent stage 1 EEG that we experience rapid eye movement (REM). REM is said to be the time during sleep when we dream, and physiological changes also occur during this time.

Some people think that outside factors can influence the subject of their dreams. For example, the fluffy fur of a puppy may become a part of a dream where the person is wearing a fur coat and is stimulated by the feel of the soft fur. In actual fact, their dog may be asleep on the end of the bed as they lay dreaming. People also wrongly assume that the dreams they have last for a minute amount of time, and when questioned about the length of time their dreams last, they often suffer from time distortion and say that is was no more than a few minutes. Dreams are found to occur in real time, so this assumption of most people is, therefore, incorrect (Pinel, 2006, p.371).

Many people also wrongly assume that they do not have dreams, although they dream as much as everyone else, but without the recall capabilities. If these people were awakened during the REM stage, it is said that they would indeed remember their dreams, but perhaps not as vividly or as often as the majority of people (Pinel, 2006, p.371).

Physiological effects during sleep include stimulated sex organs. It is common for a gentleman to have an erection while he is sleeping, whether his dream is of a sexual nature or not. Other involuntary functions such as blood pressure are also altered during sleep. During stage 4 sleep, somnambulism and sleeptalking can occur. People often think that this happens because of a dream they were having, although somnambulism happens in the deepest stage of sleep, not the REM stage which is much lighter.

Hobson’s (1989) activation-synthesis theory is that we have dreams because of neural activity, and that the brain is trying to decipher the information via the dream so it makes sense to us (Pinel, 2006, p.372 ). Freud believed that dreams were manifestations of suppressed sexual urges, and that we dealt with unconscious issues through dreams because they were too much to cope with in the conscious state. It is my belief that Freud’s theory is the most logical, because dreaming is the perfect venue for venting unwanted stress which may otherwise be suppressed until it becomes unmanageable. I do believe that this is a self-regulatory system of maintaining good psychological health. However, it is possibly not a reasonable comparison between Hobson and Freud, because one theory has more to do with psychological issues, while the other has physiological relevance. ReferencePinel, J. P. J. (2007). Basics of biopsychology. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Set-point theory does not account for weight gain, according to its basis that people get hungry when a biological need prompts them to eat. However settling-point theory states that a person may continue to gain weight incrementally, as intermittent periods of homeostasis are achieved.The plateau effect experienced by most people when they lose weight can also happen when people gain a few extra pounds (Pinel, 2007). This is bthe body’s way of slowing down the process in one direction or the other, until its tendons can stretch, a gait can be altered, or a tolerance to higher blood pressure is accepted. By allowing for such adjustments, the body can expect to continue without injury.Settling point theory suggests that body weight will progress as it is directed, unless a variable is introduced which will inhibit that progression. If one chose to gain 10 pounds, but suddenly took up jogging, weight loss would be imminent, and the settling-point theory would again be validated.Reference

Pinel, J. P. J. (2007). Basics of biopsychology. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.